tampanensis, Psi. Pharmacol. Pileipellis cellular/hymeniform, with pileocystidia. Canadian Journal of Research12:65760. Mycologia 73, 781784. All claims expressed in this article are solely those of the authors and do not necessarily represent those of their affiliated organizations, or those of the publisher, the editors and the reviewers. Indole derivatives in certainPanaeolusspecies from east Europe and Siberia. 43, 214223. doi: 10.2307/3558378. A compendium of generic names of agarics and Agaricales. These fungi are mostly dung and grassland species, some of which are quite common in Europe and North America. For a bit more information, visit our. Stafford, P. (2013). Rev. In traditional classifications, Gymnopilus was placed in the Cortinariaceae based on the ornamentation and lack of germinal pores of the basidiospores (Shaffer and Singer, 1976). Singer]Antilles panaeolus . Berkeley: Ronin Publishing. et Br.) Strbrn, J., Borovicka, J., and Sokol, M. O. Phytotaxa 496, 147158. Biol. 1935. 1985a. (2020). doi: 10.1016/B978-0-12-800212-4.00074-1. I. Psychedelics and mental health: a population study. Vorkommen von Serotonin, Psilocybin und Harnstoff in Panaeoloideae. The latter is distinguished by a rust-brown to the gray-brown, nonviscid cap, lack of annulus, and a . amzn_assoc_tracking_id = "dmgbiz-20"; 24, 13. 1: Species with dark and pink spore prints. Pocket Guide Mushrooms of South Africa. Available online at: https://www.rollingstone.com/culture/culture-news/psilocybin-legal-therapy-mdma-753946/ [Accessed November 17, 2020]. Gills: On the underside of fruiting body, turning black with age. Close up of cap and gills. In the early 1960s, reports emerged from southern France of strange intoxications produced by mushrooms that grew on horse dung. The secotioid genus Galeropsis (Agaricomycetes, Basidiomycota): a real taxonomic unit or ecological phenomenon? Phylogenetic relationship of psychoactive fungi based on rRNA gene for a large subunit and their identification using the TaqMan assay (II). Copelandia cyanescens(Berk. Panaeolus semiovatus is also known as Anellaria Separata, is a medium-sized mushroom/toadstool that grows on horse dung, and has black spores. Records and new species of Pluteus from Brazil based on morphological and molecular data. doi: 10.1128/AEM.02082-07, Malysheva, E., Moreno, G., Villarreal, M., Malysheva, V., and Svetasheva, T. (2019). Mycol. It is initially moist and brown but fades in the center as it dries, so that the margin often appears much darker (which accounts for its German namedunkelrandiger dngerling(dark-banded dung mushroom). Front. Depending on where in the world they are growing, there is research showing that there can be small amounts of psilocybin in some of these fungi, but almost certainly at much too low a concentration for them to be hallucinogenic. ex Fr.) Synonyms of Panaeolus semiovatus include Agaricus separatus L., Agaricus ciliaris Bolton, Agaricus semiovatus Sowerby, Coprinus ciliatus (Bolton) Gray, Coprinus semiovatus (Sowerby) Gray, Panaeolus separatus L.) Gillet, Anellaria separata ( L.) P. Evol. (2000). The Agaricales in modern taxonomy. Pleurocystidia irregularly clavate, with refractive contents. Fungal Biol. world distribution and comparison with similar taxa P. semiovatus var. non Fr. PLoS One 8:62419. doi: 10.1371/journal.pone.0062419, Oss, O. T., and Oeric, O. N. (1991). Toxicol. One other obvious difference between fungi in these two genera can be seen provided you have access to a high-powered microscope: you will see that the spores of Panaeolus fungi are smooth while those of Panaeolinus are minutely roughened. (2014) described Psilocybe chuxiongensis (Figure 1B) and Psilocybe cinnamomea from China based on the ITS, nrLSU, rpb2, and tef1- genes. et Br.) Olah, G. M. 1968. (V oucher specimens are deposited at the related University Herbariums of the . I found an old book in a libary that said it was the one used by the Aztecs as a hallucinagen. This dung-loving (coprophilous) mushroom is widespread and fairly common throughout Britain and Ireland as well as in other European countries. Amsterdam: Elsevier Inc, 813820. Lloydia 41, 140144. Traditional infrageneric classification of Gymnopilus is not supported by ribosomal DNA Sequence Data. Australas. He, M. Q., Zhao, R. L., Hyde, K. D., Begerow, D., Kemler, M., Yurkov, A., et al. The mitochondrial genome of G. junonius, a psychedelic species, has been sequenced (Cho et al., 2021) and the genome of G. junonus and G. dilepsis is available (NCBI, 2021). : Fr.) Basidia 4-sterigmate. 59, 423429. doi: 10.1016/j.neuropharm.2018.05.012, Justo, A., Malysheva, E., Bulyonkova, T., Vellinga, E. C., Cobian, G., Nguyen, N., et al. Knigstein: Koeltz Scientific Books. Bot. See also the entries forPanaeolusspp. It is possible that the latter species are merely varieties or races and are in fact synonymous withPanaeolus cyanescens. He et al. and our They are characterised as LBMs with small, greyish, brown or blackish, conical- or bell-shaped caps, elongated slender stalks, attached gills and a dark brown to purple-brown to black spore print (Rumack and Spoerke, 1994; Gerhardt, 1996; Stamets, 1996; He et al., 2019). Macroscopically, this species resembles Panaeolus semiovatus var. Wesselink (2018) used this region to convey its accuracy identification of psychedelic mushrooms in forensic settings. Phytotaxa 180, 185. The wood-rotting bluing Psilocybe species in Central Europe - an identification key. In Samoa, it is said that regular use of the mushroom will produce a painful red rash around the neck (Cox 1981). (From Winkler,2000 Pilze selber bestimmen[Identify 2000 Fungi Yourself], 1996**). The stem flesh is pale yellowish and very brittle. J. Bot. Copelandia cyanescens(Berk. Gartz, Jochen. Complete mitochondrial genome sequence of Gymnopilus junonius. Pharmazie40 (6): 432. Amsterdam: University of Amsterdam. Press J to jump to the feed. Minnis, A. M., Sundberg, W. J., Methven, A. S., Sipes, S. D., and Nickrent, D. L. (2006). This species was described in 1800 by Christiaan Hendrick Persoon, who named it Agaricus panaeolinia. You need to look at young specimens because the ring is fragile and sometimes falls or washes off at maturity. [syn. meadows and common land where horses graze. (2013). amzn_assoc_ad_mode = "manual"; Qulet,Panaeolus sepulcralisBerk.,Anellaria sepulchralis(Berk.) Adv. Regional field guides and checklists are regularly consulted for more identification characteristics but, few dedicated guides exist to aid in the identification of psychedelic mushrooms (Gartz, 1996; Stamets, 1996). Norw. olivaceus occupies a kind of middle ground in that some specimens . (2021). Psilocybin and psilocin, two psychoactive components found in magic mushrooms, have therapeutic potential in a number of mental health disorders without the addictiveness and overdose risks found in other mind-altering drugs, such as cocaine, methamphetamines and alcohol. Rees, B. J., Marchant, A., and Zuccarello, G. C. (2004). Nov. Hedwigia 109, 187224. Beijing: Chinese Academy of Forestry. doi: 10.21010/ajtcam.v13i6.15, Keywords: hallucinogenic mushrooms, taxonomy, phylogeny, Psilocybe, Panaeolus, Pluteus, Gymnopilus, psychedelic mushrooms, Citation: Strauss D, Ghosh S, Murray Z and Gryzenhout M (2022) An Overview on the Taxonomy, Phylogenetics and Ecology of the Psychedelic Genera Psilocybe, Panaeolus, Pluteus and Gymnopilus. Soud Lek. Norvell, L. L., Hawksworth, D. L., Petersen, R. H., and Redhead, S. A. Sometimes the caps are eaten raw and washed down with Coca-Cola. The company is called Noomadic Herbals, my favorite supplement they make is called "Mushroom Total". 5, 43332. The occurrence of psilocybin in Gymnopilus species. Forensic Sci. India Biodiver. Off-white becoming mottled brown and Li et al. Narrowly attached to the stem; close or nearly distant; short-gills frequent; grayish to brownish at first, becoming darker brown; sometimes with a mottled appearance; sometimes with pale edges. Psilocybe chuxiongensis, a new bluing species from subtropical China. No toxic or lethal Psilocybe species are known. J. Ethnopharmacol. The most frequently sequenced region of DNA used for these genera is the Internal Transcribed Spacer (ITS) region (approximately 500800 bp), which forms a part of the ribosomal operon (Schoch et al., 2012; Badotti et al., 2017). Serotonin has also been detected (Gartz 1985b). doi: 10.1002/anie.201910175, Li, S., Ma, Q.-B., Tian, C., Ge, H.-X., Liang, Y., Guo, Z.-G., et al. desertorum, Pan. squarrous (Hosen et al., 2019), and Plu. Phytotaxa 312, 6070. Landry, B. There are no recommended dosage instructions for Panaeolus antillarum, this may be due to the fact that it is not commonly eaten due to its bitter taste. 25, 111122. Mushroom Observer (2021). It is found throughout the world, including central Europe. Mycosphere 11, 10601456. Japan 44, 4448. The need for reviews and comprehensive field guides is urgent due to the recent surge of research into psychedelic mushrooms along with public interest. Hartman, S. (2018). Harmful potential of magic mushroom use: a review. A new species of Panaeolus (Agaricales, Basidiomycota) from Yunnan, Southwest China. Panaeolus phalaenarum(Fr.) Panaeolus semiovatus is also native to North America, where it is equally plentiful. Aust. : Fr.) Mycological Research97: 25154. This review provides an overview of only Psilocybe, Panaeolus, Pluteus, and Gymnopilus, their current taxonomy and ecology. (2018). 1966. et Torr. 56, 255257. Agricault. While some guides list this species as edible, a few people experience gastric upset after consumption. (2010). Gymnopilus penetrans and G. swaticus sp. Berkeley: Ten Speed Press. Redhead et al. The Javanese batik artists in Yogyarkata eat jambur mushrooms to obtain inspiration for their artistic endeavors. He found high concentrations of psilocin in the fruiting bodies and only slight quantities ofpsilocybin(Heim et al. Mushrooms are described as little brown mushrooms (LBMs) or little white mushrooms (LWMs) (Li et al., 2014; Dalefield, 2017) with a viscid cap when moist, an dark to purplish black coloured spores (Arora, 1986) and a dark purple-brown spore print (Estrada et al., 2020). Seattle: Pacific Northwest Fungi Project. 8-18 cm long; up to 1.5 cm thick; equal above a slightly enlarged base; smooth or powdery; whitish; with a high, thin ring that becomes blackened by spores and often disappears. Food Hyg. Sing. Change 5:813998. doi: 10.3389/ffgc.2022.813998. 333355. Allen, John W., and Mark D. Merlin. Lilloa 22, 5832. Stropharia Pain Med. Phytotaxa 428, 5159. Note the black spores. Mushrooms demystified : a comprehensive guide to the fleshy fungi. The reddish brown lamellae are emarginate and later turn black because of the spores. cyanescens is the most well-known psychoactive representative (Figure 1D; Badham, 1984) and contains high levels of psilocybin, that are even higher than those found in Psilocybe species (Musshoff et al., 2000; Maruyama et al., 2003). nigroviridis, Plu. New Combinations in the genus Deconica (Fungi, Basidiomycota, Agaricales). J. Med. 10, 249254. Phylogenetics of gene sequences have described the newest species of Psilocybe. Its common names are the shiny mottlegill, or egghead mottlegill. Mycologia 95, 12041214. However, there have been occasional reports of hallucinations in children who have grazed on these mushrooms, suggesting that at least some . There are no recorded fatal species of Panaeolus, Psathyrella or Panaeolina, but Panaeolus subbalteatus, and Panaeolus retirugishas have been reported as poisonous (Watling, 1977; Chen et al., 2014; Li et al., 2019). It is not chemically related to either MDMA or other stimulants. (2019). doi: 10.1007/978-3-319-23534-9_1. Journal of Natural Products42 (5): 46974. Popular intellectuals and entertainers advocate the positive uses of psychedelics to millions of people using podcasts and virtual videos (Kohn and Hofmann, 2010; Hartman, 2018; Rogan, 2018, 2019). (2006). A Panaeolus poisoning in scotland. Louis Marie: Paris Herb, 116119. Guzmn, G., Kroeger, P., and Ramirez-Guillen, F. (2016). doi: 10.1016/j.funbio.2010.09.012, Kalichman, J., Kirk, P. M., and Matheny, P. B. The information found on healing-mushrooms.net is strictly the author expressing an opinion. (2001). The ITS regions divided 38 taxa into five well supported clades, called spectabilis-imperialis, nevadensis-penetrans, aeruginosus-luteofolius, lepidotus-subearlei and an unnamed clade formed by G. underwoodii, G. validipes, and G. flavidellus (Guzmn-Dvalos et al., 2003). doi: 10.11646/phytotaxa.188.2.2. Denmark: Nordic Council of Ministers. Copelandia cyanescens] prefers to grow on cow or horse dung. Qul. Psychedelics. (2018). hispidulopsis, Plu. Images obtained from Mushroom Observer (2021). Lyon 10, 9011027. 17:42. doi: 10.1186/s12866-017-0958-x, Bashir, H., Jabeen, S., Bashir, H., and Khalid, A. N. (2020). 11, 7892. ater, Pan. I found an old book in a libary that said it was the one used by the Aztecs as a hallucinagen. Pharm. nov. (Pluteus sect. It is essential the correct mushroom is identified before eating as biologically active psilocin is found in orPanaeolus cyanescens which can cause psychedelic experiences. Thesis. doi: 10.1007/s13225-010-0048-y, evkov, H., Borovika, J., and Gates, G. (2021). doi: 10.11646/phytotaxa.496.2.4, Shaffer, R. L., and Singer, R. (1976). Fungal Divers 64, 123131. (2019). Gymnopilus contains over 200 species world-wide and has a psychedelic type species, namely Gymnopilus liquiritiae (Figure 1J; Karsten, 1879; Wurst et al., 2002; Kalichman et al., 2020). Saprobic; growing alone or gregariously on the dung of horses; spring, summer, and fall; widely distributed in North America. 88, 21682179. doi: 10.11646/phytotaxa.284.3.3, Maeta, K., Ochi, T., Tokimoto, K., Shimomura, N., Maekawa, N., Kawaguchi, N., et al. Phylogenetic relationships of alpha-amanitin producing Galerina from British Columbia. doi: 10.1615/IntJMedMushr.v8.i3.110, Guzmn-Dvalos, L., Mueller, G. M., Cifuentes, J., Miller, A. N., and Santerre, A. However, based on the presence of styryl-pyrones, bis-noryangonin and hispidin the genus was transferred to the Strophariaceae (Kuihner, 1980; Rees et al., 2004; Holec, 2005). The Agaricales in Modern Taxonomy, 4th Edn. Thomas et al. Mycosphere 9, 598617. paucicystidiatus (Menolli et al., 2015) and a further 12 species were sequenced for the ITS and tef1 gene regions (Justo et al., 2014). Press question mark to learn the rest of the keyboard shortcuts Dictionary of the Fungi. The generic name Panaeolus means variegated - a reference to the mottling on the gills - while the specific epithet semiovatus means 'half an egg', so Egghead Mottlegill seems appropriate but perhaps Half-an-Egghead Mottlegill would have been even better. Mitochond. Soc. 1979. Rochester: Park Street Press. Artic. Bibl. Int. Biochemie und Physiologie der Pflanzen184:17178. doi: 10.5598/imafungus.2010.01.02.05, OHanlon, R. (2018). Fungal Divers 44, 5363. villosus (Figures 1H,I; Saupe, 1981; Guzmn et al., 1998; Allen, 2012). Cheilocystidia 2565 x 7.510 m; cylindric to sublageniform; flexuous; with subclavate to subcapitate apices; smooth; thin-walled; hyaline in KOH. Sacc. Qul. Fungi and Lichens of the Limpopo Valley & Mapungubwe National Park. Review of Mycology33:28490. The authors declare that the research was conducted in the absence of any commercial or financial relationships that could be construed as a potential conflict of interest. 74, 1439. Copelandia cambodginiensis(Olah et Heim) Singergold top. Fungal Genomes and Genotyping, in Advances in Applied Microbiology. Outline of Fungi and fungus-like taxa. J. Bot. J. DS researched and wrote the manuscript. The word Panaeolus is Greek for all variegated, alluding to the spotted gills of the mushrooms produced. 48, 4549. doi: 10.1111/NJB.02427, Hu, Y., Mortimer, P., Karunarathna, S., Rasp, O., Promputtha, I., Yan, K., et al. The genus Pluteus (Basidiomycota, Agaricales, Pluteaceae) from Republic of So Tom and Prncipe, West Africa. doi: 10.2307/3759505, Schoch, C. L., Seifert, K. A., Huhndorf, S., Robert, V., Spouge, J. L., Levesque, C. A., et al. The genus was formerly recognised by Singer (1949) in the Coprinaceae, but then transferred to the Strophariaceae based on basidiospore pigmentation and the presence of chrysocystidia (Kuihner, 1980) and DNA sequences of the nLSU (Hopple and Vilgalys, 1999). 2021:9. doi: 10.1108/OXAN-DB260709, Passie, T., Seifert, J., Schneider, U., and Emrich, H. M. (2002). Occurrence and Use of Hallucinogenic Mushrooms Containing Psilocybin Alkaloids. . doi: 10.1080/1355621021000005937, Peintner, U., Bougher, N. L., Castellano, M. A., Moncalvo, J. M., Moser, M. M., Trappe, J. M., et al. Additional evidence supporting the occurrence of psilocybin inPanaeolus foenisecii. Unrelated but somewhat similar in appearance to Panaeolus semiovatus is Volvariella speciosa. . drying smooth and shiny but tending to wrinkle in dry weather. Agaricus callosusFr.,Agaricus(Panaeolus)sphinctrinusFries,Panaeolus campanulatus(Fries) Qulet,Panaeolus retirugis(Fries) Qulet,Panaeolus sphinctrinus(Fries) Qulet]. Pluteus is a large genus of at least 500 species and is typified by Pluteus cervinus (Figure 1G; Kirk et al., 2008; Justo et al., 2011b; Wijayawardene et al., 2020). During his attempts to find the Mexican magic mushroom, Richard Evans Schultes identified asteonanacatla variety of this species:Panaeolus campanulatusL. var. Mmoires la Socit dmulation Montbliard 2. Boca Raton: CRC Press. doi: 10.2307/3761920, Halling, R. E., Ammirati, J. F., Traquair, J. Panaeolina foenisecii is a very common and widely distributed little brown mushroom often found on lawns. 1992. Reg. Anamika, a new mycorrhizal genus of Cortinariaceae from India and its phylogenetic position based on ITS and LSU sequences. (1996). Ever wondered why some Mushroom Supplements are so cheap? Chemie Int. amzn_assoc_search_bar = "true"; Mycotaxon 3, 179193. A2 is benzylpiperazine. Confusion with members from the Rhodophyllaceae is possible due to the Pluteaceae family sharing pink spores, attached gills, spores that are angular in outline and a regular to irregular gill trama (Halling et al., 1987). Panaeolus albovelutinus. Rysslands, Finlands och den Skandinaviska halfns Hattsvampar. Most professional and citizen mycologists rely on morphology for identification of mushrooms based on characteristics of the cap, stem, gills, spores, spore-bearing structures and habitats of mushrooms (Goldman and Gryzenhout, 2019). The most conspicuous characteristic is the gills that become mottled with shades of grey and black while the spores mature (Rumack and Spoerke, 1994). Psilocybin could be legal for therapy by 2021. (2007) proposed to split the genus and conserve the name Psilocybe for psychedelic species, represented by the type species Psilocybe semilanceata (Figure 1A), and transfer the remaining non-psychedelic species to Deconica, typified by Deconica physaloides (Ramrez-Cruz et al., 2012). The bluing hallucinogenic members of this genus are sometimes segregated into a separate genus, Copelandia. semiovatus, P . doi: 10.1080/23802359.2021.1895692, Corts-Prez, A., Ramrez-Guilln, F., Guzmn, G., Guzmn-Dvalos, L., Rockefeller, A., and Ramrez-Cruz, V. (2021). The Panaeolus genus includes some of the most-potent psycoactive species known, but it also includes some that are not psychoactive at all (some authorities have placed the psychoactive species in a separate genus, Copelandia, in recognition of the distinction).P. (Most gilled fungi were initially placed in a giant Agaricus genus, but the majority have since been redistributed to other genera leaving the 'true mushrooms' in Agaricus.) Similar to Panaeolina foenisecii. Singer, R. (1949). Utility of various molecular markers in fungal identification and phylogeny. doi: 10.3767/003158515X685283. Beitrge zur Kenntnis der Pilze Mitteleuropas3:22327. Since the transfer of Chamaeota mammillatus to Pluteus using morphological and DNA sequences, the description of the genus also includes species with a partial veil (Minnis et al., 2006; Minnis, 2008; Menolli et al., 2010). Panaeolus semiovatusFries (Lundell) [syn. DNA markers for forensic identification of non-human biological traces. Some fungi have other psychedelic substances, such as ergotamine from Claviceps purpurea or ibotenic acid from Amanita muscaria. Joe Rogan Experience Podcast #1169 with Elon Musk. Proc. Getting to grips with Pluteus. Filling gaps in biodiversity knowledge for macrofungi: contributions and assessment of an herbarium collection DNA Barcode Sequencing Project. Although the lower two-thirds of the stipe is the same colour as as the cap, the colour becomes noticeably paler towards the apex. Color brownish and mottled, with the edges remaining whitish, blackish when fully mature. olivaceus, Pan. The stem flesh is pale yellowish and very brittle. Cardiac arrhythmias and cardiac arrest related to mushroom poisoning: A case report. 23, 851854. Boedjin. Panaeolus acuminatus. The stem is 15cm by 20mm, solid and smooth, with an annulus (ring) that is white, but is often found blackened by falling spores. Based on DNA sequence comparisons Gymnopilus is currently characterised under the Hymenogastraceae (Kalichman et al., 2020). a systematic revision of the known species including the history, distribution and chemistry of the hallucinogenic species. Mycologia76 (3): 55154. Figure 1. (2003). Linn. Also observed in Australia, New Zealand, Thailand, Indonesia and Cambodia. Natl. 10:281. doi: 10.12688/f1000research.51613.1, Menolli, N., Asai, T., Capelari, M., and NelsonMenolli, M. (2010). Beitrge zur Kenntnis der Pilze Mitteleuropas3:22934. doi: 10.1139/gen-2018-0083. Guzmn, G., Allen, J. W., and Gartz, J. Questionable. Vancouver: University of British Columbia, doi: 10.14288/1.0378696, Lee, S., Ryoo, R., Choi, J. H., Kim, J. H., Kim, S. H., and Kim, K. H. (2020). (2015). (2005). BMC Psychiatry 19:113. Morphological and molecular evidence for a new species of Psilocybe from southern China. (2021). doi: 10.1127/nova_hedwigia/2019/0528, Thomas, K., Peintner, U., Moser, M., and Manimohan, P. (2002). The blue meanie is the perfect alchemist: it transforms dung into gold, into the golden light of enlightenment., This illustration, inspired by the use of mushrooms, clearly depicts jambur mushrooms (Panaeolus cyanescens) at work inside the figures head. doi: 10.5248/129.215, Liu, M., and Bau, T. (2019). Psychedelic drug research will increase globally and so will the research on at least 300 species of psychedelic mushrooms, divided across Psilocybe, Panaeolus, Pluteus, Gymnopilus and other genera also containing psychedelic species such as Amanita, Copelandia, Inocybe, and Pholiotina (Guzmn et al., 1998; Metzner, 2005; Reingardiene et al., 2005; Oxford Analytica, 2021). (2020). One hundred and seventeen clades of euagarics. This is a buff, or whitish-colored mushroom that grows in horse dung. Beyond cannabis: psychedelic decriminalization and social justice.