kurgan hypothesis debunked

C.C. This view is held especially by those archaeologists who posit an original homeland of vast extent and immense time depth. Since the bones at the lake were not collected systematically, the finding hinted that the Mediterranean group in total might have been quite large. Bone and tissue samples were sent to Oxford University for carbon dating. The most popular hypothesis for the origin and spread of the language is the Kurgan hypothesis, which postulates an origin in the Pontic-Caspian steppe of Eastern Europe. As he put it in an e-mail, White people simply didnt exist ~8,000 years ago.. Both researchers caution against reading too much into genetic evidence alone. A very careful analysis showed they dont match perfectly. A New Yorker Cartoonist on Why Weddings Make Great Jokes. [249] As an alternative to the model of a binary split into Slavic and Baltic, some linguists suggest that Balto-Slavic should be split into three equidistant nodes: Eastern Baltic, Western Baltic and Slavic. [1] The Indo-Iranian language and culture was further developed in the Andronovo culture (c.1800800 BCE), and influenced by the BactriaMargiana Archaeological Complex (c.24001600 BCE). [40], The Indo-European eastward expansion in the 2nd millennium BCE had a significant influence on Chinese culture,[148] introducing the chariot,[web 12] horse burials,[web 13][149] the domesticated horse,[148][150] iron technology,[148][web 14] and wheeled vehicles,[151][152][153][154] fighting styles, head-and-hoof rituals, art motifs and myths. Roopkund C was a lone individual whose genome was typical of Southeast Asia. "[198] In southern Poland, interaction between Scandinavian and Global Amphora resulted in a new culture, absorbed by the incoming Yamnaya pastoralists. When I visited, a technician was working on a nubbin of bone from an ancient Roman who lived in Belgium. (2015), "both south-north and north-south genetic influence across the Caucasus is plausible.". On the other hand, the Kurgan hypothesis claims Proto-Indo-European spread from the Pontic steppe after developing around 4500 BCE.. That "hygiene hypothesis," first proposed in 1989 ( 3 ), has become enshrined in popular culture: We're too clean for our own good. [275], Indo-Europeanization was complete by the beginning of the Bronze Age. Childe assumed that large-scale migrations would have been associated with the prehistoric . [159] Of these the Yuezhi are generally held to have been Tocharians. Large ancient-DNA study uncovers population that moved westwards 4,500 years ago", "The genomic origins of the Bronze Age Tarim Basin mummies", "Shared and Unique Components of Human Population Structure and Genome-Wide Signals of Positive Selection in South Asia", "Genetic evidence for recent population mixture in India", "Steppe migrant thugs pacified by Stone Age farming women", "An essay on Saami ethnolinguistic prehistory", Toward a New Outline of the Soviet Central Asian Paleolithic, "The genetic prehistory of the Greater Caucasus", "The formation of human populations in South and Central Asia", "New Radiocarbon Dates and a Review of the Chronology of Prehistoric Populations from the Minusinsk Basin, Southern Siberia, Russia", "Emergence and Spread of Basal Lineages of, "Massive migration from the steppe was a source for Indo-European languages in Europe", "Genome-wide patterns of selection in 230 ancient Eurasians", "Human mitochondrial DNA lineages in Iron-Age Fennoscandia suggest incipient admixture and eastern introduction of farming-related maternal ancestry", "Yamnaya - Corded Ware - Bell Beakers: How to conceptualise events of 5000 years ago", "Story of most murderous people of all time revealed in ancient DNA", "Celticization from the West: The Contribution of Archaeology", "The Indo-Europeanization of Atlantic Europe", "Languages of the World: Germanic languages", "Language Acquisition in the Romance Speaking World: Peru Departamento de Educacin", "Radiation oncology in Latin speaking countries: A link between Europe and Latin America", "Paradigm Shift? Interpreting Tartessian as Celtic", "American Heritage Dictionary. [web 18], By the early 1st millennium BC, Proto-Germanic is believed to have been spoken in the areas of present-day Denmark, southern Sweden, southern Norway and Northern Germany. [190] Although closely related to the Tripolye culture, it is contemporary with the Yamnaya culture, and resembles it in significant ways. The Maykop culture, c.37003000 BCE,[139] was a major Bronze Age archaeological culture in the Western Caucasus region of Southern Russia. [75][1], The Pontic steppe is a large area of grasslands in far Eastern Europe, located north of the Black Sea, Caucasus Mountains and Caspian Sea and including parts of eastern Ukraine, southern Russia and northwest Kazakhstan. In other contexts, "Hellenic" and "Greek" are generally synonyms. Ancestors of Germanic and Balto-Slavic may have spread with the Corded Ware, originating east of the Carpatians, while the Danube Valley was ancestral to Italo-Celtic. [45] The Corded Ware culture in Middle Europe (third millennium BCE),[web 1] which arose in the contact zone east of the Carpathian mountains, materialized with a massive migration from the Eurasian steppes to Central Europe,[8][web 2][9] probably played a central role in the spread of the pre-Germanic and pre-Balto-Slavic dialects. (2015) shows that the people of the Sintashta culture are genetically related to those of the Corded Ware culture.[70]. According to Narasimhan et al. The Kurgan's thesis is the predominant model of Indo-European origins. [242], The Celtic languages (usually pronounced /kltk/ but sometimes /sltk/)[243] are descended from Proto-Celtic, or "Common Celtic"; a branch of the greater Indo-European language family. ", Demkina et al. At the peak of their power in the 3rd century BC, the Yuezhi are believed to have dominated the areas north of the Qilian Mountains (including the Tarim Basin and Dzungaria), the Altai region,[161] the greater part of Mongolia, and the upper waters of the Yellow River. Archaeologist Marija Gimbutas first proposed the Ukrainian origin, known as the kurgan hypothesis, in the 1950s. Aside from a single iron spearhead, no weapons were found, and there was no trace of horses. 2015:211) fits the archaeological record. The material on this site may not be reproduced, distributed, transmitted, cached or otherwise used, except with the prior written permission of Cond Nast. The Kurgan model of Indo-European origins draws on both archaeology and linguistics to identify specific archaeological cultures with different stages of the Indo-European expansion. Climate change and drought may have triggered both the initial dispersal of Indo-European speakers, and the migration of Indo-Europeans from the steppes in south central Asia and India. The spread to Cape Breton and Patagonia occurred in modern times. During the 1st millennium BCE, they were spoken across much of Europe, in the Iberian Peninsula, from the Atlantic and North Sea coastlines, up to the Rhine valley and down the Danube valley to the Black Sea, the northern Balkan Peninsula and in central Asia Minor. Analysis of the human remains found at Roopkund, in the Himalayas, has raised baffling questions about who these people were and why they were there. (2017): "In the second millennium BC, humidization of the climate led to the divergence of the soil cover with secondary formation of the complexes of chestnut soils and solonetzes. 52005000 BCE the Pontic-Caspian steppes were populated by hunter-gatherers. [173] Pre-Italic may have developed in Hungary, and spread toward Italy via the Urnfield culture and Villanovan culture. [web 25][web 26][web 27] The Kassites were members of a small military aristocracy but were efficient rulers and not locally unpopular. [289], A minority view also suggests that the Indo-European homeland may have been located in the Armenian Highland. A careful excavation, she believes, might solve the mystery, especially if it is able to plumb the lake itself. She tentatively named the culture "Kurgan" after their . The Balkan languages (Thracian, Dacian, Illyrian) may have developed among the early Indo-European populations of southeastern Europe. Perhaps, the Roopkund researchers thought, there might be a tribe or a group in India descended from Greeks. Stray DNA molecules from people who handled the remains can ruin an entire sample. 33572162 BC: (1) Greek-Armenian, (2) Albanian, (3) Italic-Germanic-Celtic, (4) Balto-SlavicIndo-Iranian. [27] Recent research by Haak et al. [2], According to Marija Gimbutas, the process of "Indo-Europeanization" of Europe was essentially a cultural, not a physical transformation. The Achaemenids replaced Median rule from 559 BCE. [1] The associated culture was initially a tribal, pastoral society centred in the northwestern parts of the Indian subcontinent; it spread after 1200 BCE to the Ganges Plain, as it was shaped by increasing settled agriculture, a hierarchy of four social classes, and the emergence of monarchical, state-level polities. The Phrygian language /frdin/ was the language spoken by the Phrygians in Asia Minor during Classical Antiquity (c.8th century BCE to 5th century CE). She told me, We hoped that after the paper was published someone would come forward with information that would help us determine what might have happened at Roopkundsome historian or a person with knowledge of a group of European travellers who vanished in the Himalayas around that time.. [70], The earliest known chariots have been found in Sintashta burials, and the culture is considered a strong candidate for the origin of the technology, which spread throughout the Old World and played an important role in ancient warfare. And yet the historians I consulted, specialists in South Asian and Greek history and authorities in the history of Himalayan mountaineering, said that, in recent centuries, there was no evidence of a large group of unrelated people from the eastern Mediterraneanmen and womentravelling in the Himalayas before 1950. The bone in which the cochlea is embedded is the densest in the body, and provides the best source of preserved DNA in ancient remains. [339], The Wusun are first mentioned by Chinese sources as vassals in the Tarim Basin of the Yuezhi,[340] another Indo-European Caucasian people of possible Tocharian stock. The women consider themselves to be keepers of the goddesss memory, and Sax had recorded and translated many of their songs and stories of the pilgrimage. Indo-Iranian peoples are a grouping of ethnic groups consisting of the Indo-Aryan, Iranian, Dardic and Nuristani peoples; that is, speakers of Indo-Iranian languages, a major branch of the Indo-European language family. Archeologists have long known about the spread of the Yamnaya, but almost nothing in the archeological record showed the brutality of their takeover. Although this identification is now generally considered mistaken, the name has become customary. According to the widely held Kurgan hypothesis, or renewed Steppe hypothesis, the oldest migration branch produced the Anatolian languages (Hittite language and Luwian language) which split from the earliest proto-Indo-European speech community (archaic PIE) inhabiting the Volga basin. Discover world-changing science. By the early 20th century, well-defined descriptions of PIE had been developed that are still accepted today (with some refinements). Their skeletons are a warning to those who would disrespect the goddess. Martirosyan, Hrach (2017). The scientists concluded that the dead represented two populations: a group of tall Brahmans from the plains of India and a company of shorter, local porters, whose skulls were marked by years of carrying heavy loads with a tumpline looped over their heads. [127], According to Mallory, it is likely that the Anatolians reached the Near East from the north, either via the Balkans or the Caucasus in the 3rd millennium BCE. Based on evidence from presumably non-Indo-European lexicon in the European branches of Indo-European, Iversen and Kroonen (2017) postulate a group of "Early European Neolithic" languages that is associated with the Neolithic spread of agriculturalists into Europe. It is likely that the newcomers perpetrated a large-scale killing of local men, boys, and possibly male infants. The Indo-Iranians interacted with the Bactria-Margiana Culture, also called "BactriaMargiana Archaeological Complex". [301][302] The similarity of some Phrygian words to Greek ones was observed by Plato in his Cratylus (410a). [71] Steppe herders, archaic Proto-Indo-European speakers, spread into the lower Danube valley about 42004000 BCE, either causing or taking advantage of the collapse of Old Europe. Gimbutas defined the Kurgan culture as composed of four successive periods, with the earliest (Kurgan I) including the Samara and Seroglazovo cultures of the DnieperVolga region in the Copper Age (early 4th millennium BC). [290], Hellenic is the branch of the Indo-European language family that includes the different varieties of Greek. We need to be able to talk about these differences clearly, whatever they may be. Alexander left behind commanders and soldiers in some of the territories he conquered, many of whom stayed. Such identifications attempt to be consistent with the glottochronology of the language tree and with the archaeology of those places and times. The link to the Yamnaya-culture, in the contact zone of western and central Europe between Rhine and Vistula (Poland),[225] is as follows: Yamnaya culture (c.33002600 BC) Corded Ware culture (c.31002350 BCE) Bell Beaker culture (c.28001800 BC) Unetice culture (c.23001680 BCE) Tumulus culture (c.16001200 BCE) Urnfield culture (c.1300750 BCE). Of all places in the world, India is one of the places most heavily sampled in terms of human diversity, Reich told me. Though the migration theory is still defended by many modern historians, most archaeologists have abandoned the migration hypothesis regarding the origin of the Phrygians due to a lack substantial archaeological evidence, with the migration theory resting only on the accounts of Herodotus and Xanthus. Although belonging to the Bronze Age, they were the forerunners of the Iron Age, developing the manufacture of iron artifacts from as early as the 14th century BCE, when letters to foreign rulers reveal the latter's demand for iron goods. Contemporary claims of Indo-Aryan migrations are drawn from linguistic,[331] archaeological, literary and cultural sources. Kortlandt (2010) refers to Kortlandt, Frederik. The Phrygians (gr. The origin of Rus. It is most closely associated with the late Marija Gimbutas, an archaeologist at the University of California . [223], By the 3rd century BC, the Pre-Roman Iron Age arose among the Germanic peoples, who were at the time expanding southwards at the expense of the Celts and Illyrians. That's what makes it paint such a clear picture [of how the root language spread] and why you can really see the migrations so easily on a map.. [347][348] The reign of the Kassites laid the essential groundwork for the development of subsequent Babylonian culture. At the Balkan, the Vuedol culture (c.30002200 BCE) formed a contact zone between post-Yamnaya and Bell Beaker culture. By the Middle Ages, all the Anatolian languages (and the cultures accompanying them) were extinct, although there may be lingering influences on the modern inhabitants of Anatolia, most notably Armenians.[138]. Nomadic horse riders likely opened a steppe bridge between Europe and Asia, but recent genetic data raise more questions. Far more work has gone into reconstructing it than any other proto-language and it is by far the most well-understood of all proto-languages of its age. According to the latest study by Kassian et al. [349] Their historical areas of settlement were on the Iranian plateau (mainly Iran, Azerbaijan and Afghanistan) and certain neighbouring areas of Asia (such as parts of the Caucasus, Eastern Turkey, Northeast Syria, Uzbekistan, Tajikistan, Bahrain, Oman, northern Iraq, Northwestern and Western Pakistan) reflecting changing geopolitical range of the Persian empires and the Iranian history.[350][351]. But, again, Roopkund B didnt resemble any populations living there now. [23] The question of further Indo-Europeanization of Central and Western Europe, Central Asia and Northern India during the Bronze Age is beyond the scope of the Kurgan hypothesis, and far more uncertain than the events of the Copper Age, and subject to some controversy. 4000 to 1000 BCE, potentially explaining how these languages came to be spoken across a large area of Eurasia, from India and Iran, to Europe. He considers the term "Kurgan culture" so imprecise as to be useless, and instead uses the core Yamnaya culture and its relationship with other cultures as points of reference. [172] According to Anthony, this migration probably gave rise to Proto-Celtic[173] and Pre-Italic. Since the early 1980s[74] the mainstream consensus among Indo-Europeanists favors Marija Gimbutas' "Kurgan hypothesis",[75][76][13][19] c.q. [174] Slavic and Baltic developed at the middle Dniepr (present-day Ukraine)[5] at c.2800 BCE, spreading north from there. After he presented material from the book as an Op-Ed in the Times, sixty-seven anthropologists, social scientists, and others signed an open letter on BuzzFeed, titled How Not to Talk About Race and Genetics. The scholars complained that Reichs skillfulness with ancient and contemporary DNA should not be confused with a mastery of the cultural, political, and biological meanings of human groups, and that Reich critically misunderstands and misrepresents concerns regarding the use of such loaded terms as race and population., Reichs lab now has an ethics-and-outreach officer, Jakob Sedig, whose job is to work with some of the cultural groups being studied, to understand and respond to their sensitivities. Research by Haak et al. [49] According to Gimbutas, the social structure of Old Europe "contrasted with the Indo-European Kurgans who were mobile and non-egalitarian" and who had a hierarchically organised tripartite social structure; the IE were warlike, lived in smaller villages at times, and had an ideology that centered on the virile male, reflected also in their pantheon. 2023 Scientific American, a Division of Springer Nature America, Inc. I never heard a word, not a hint of a story, no folktale or anything, Sax told me. In other words, most of the Roopkund dead probably perished as Sax almost did, when he was an undergraduatestaggering around in a sudden blizzard and looking for their companions. [228][229][230] According to David W. Anthony, proto-Latins originated in today's eastern Hungary, kurganized around 3100 BCE by the Yamnaya culture,[231] while Kristian Kristiansen associated the Proto-Villanovans with the Velatice-Baierdorf culture of Moravia and Austria. Even today, the Ychromosomes of almost all men of Western European ancestry have a high percentage of Yamnaya-derived genes, suggesting that violent conquest may have been widespread. They brought with them a language that is the root of many of those spoken todayincluding English, Spanish, Hindi, Russian and Persian. But about eighty per cent of that European ancestry is inherited from white malesgenetic testimony to the widespread rape and sexual coercion of female slaves by slaveowners. [273][274], Evidence of proto-Thracians or proto-Dacians in the prehistoric period depends on the remains of material culture. The Italic languages, like Celtic ones, are split into P and Q forms: P-Italic includes Oscan and Umbrian, while Latin and Faliscan are included in the Q-Italic branch.[224]. The bearers of these cultures were nomadic pastoralists, who, according to the model, by the early 3rd millennium expanded throughout the PonticCaspian steppe and into Eastern Europe. David Anthony, an anthropologist at Hartwick College, who co-authored several of the earlier genetic studies but was not involved in the latest work, calls the new findings very convincing. The following suggestions have been made from 2015 to 2019: Soviet and post-Soviet Russian archaeologists have proposed an East Caspian influence, via the eastern Caspian areas, on the formation of the Don-Volga cultures. 52005000 BCE the CucuteniTrypillia culture (60003500 BCE) (aka Tripolye culture), presumed to be non-Indo-European speaking, appears east of the Carpathian mountains, [117] moving the cultural frontier to the Southern Bug valley,[118] while the foragers at the Dniepr Rapids shifted to cattle herding, marking the shift to Dniepr-Donets II (5200/5000 4400/4200 BCE). A snowstorm forced the first expedition to turn back, but two months later another expedition made it and returned to Calcutta with remains for study. Among these are the names of gods (Indra, Mitra, Varuna, and Agni) and some personal names. [5], Recent genetics studies have demonstrated that populations bearing specific Y-DNA haplogroups and a distinct genetic signature expanded into Europe and South Asia from the Pontic-Caspian steppe during the third and second millennia BC. Baltic and Slavic languages share several linguistic traits not found in any other Indo-European branch, which points to a period of common development. Extant major Iranian languages are Persian, Pashto, Kurdish, and Balochi, besides numerous smaller ones. Yet, Reich also notes that "the evidence here is circumstantial as no ancient DNA from the Hittites themselves has yet been published,", Wang et al. [131], Damgaard et al. B., P. F. Kuznetsov, and A. P. Semenova. The trail climbs through deep forests, emerging above the tree line, at eleven and a half thousand feet, into meadows carpeted with wildflowers. The earliest written document that mentions the Albanian language is a late 13th-century crime report from Dubrovnik. The Tocharians, or "Tokharians" (/tkrinz/ or /tkrinz/) were inhabitants of medieval oasis city-states on the northern edge of the Tarim Basin (modern Xinjiang, China). [web 22] For a more comprehensive list, see the ethnocultural subdivisions. It postulates that the people of a Kurgan culture in the Pontic steppe north of the Black Sea were the most likely speakers of the Proto-Indo-European . The whine of a sandblaster filled the air as she removed excess bone from a tiny treasure chest of DNAa spiral cavity in the inner ear called the cochlea. [165] Their eastern neighbors were the Donghu. Knowledge awaits. 3400 BCE. "[208] Heyd confirms the close connection between Corded Ware and Yamna, but also states that "neither a one-to-one translation from Yamnaya to CWC, nor even the 75:25 ratio as claimed (Haak et al. Bones had been stolen; others had been rearranged in fanciful patterns or piled in cairns. The villages are on the route of a pilgrimage to honor Nanda Devi, a manifestation of Parvati, a supreme goddess in Hinduism. "[30] They further state that their findings are "consistent with historical models of cultural hybridity and 'middle ground' in a multicultural and multilingual but genetically homogeneous Bronze Age Anatolia," as proposed by other researchers. In the late eighties, he went on the pilgrimage himself, the only Westerner to have done so at that time, after which he published Mountain Goddess. The book describes how the Himalayas, associated for thousands of years in Indias literatures with famous pilgrimage places and powerful, ascetic renouncers, became the setting for followers to show devotion to the goddess by giving suffering to their bodies. In his writings, known only from secondary sources, Scylax called the river Indos, from which the English name for the subcontinent derives. By adopting the wheel and the horse, they became powerful and fearsome nomads, expanding westward into Europe as well as east- and southward into India. Yet Anthony disagrees with the interpretation that this was a small and mostly peaceful affair. Geneticists have sampled the DNA of hundreds of living populations, making India one of the most genetically mapped countries in the world. [1][81] Anthony emphasizes the Yamnaya culture (33002500 BCE),[1] which according to him started on the middle Don and Volga, as the origin of the Indo-European dispersal,[1][81] but regards Khvalynsk archaeological culture since around 4500 BCE as the oldest phase of Proto-Indo-European in the lower and middle Volga, a culture that kept domesticated sheep, goats, cattle and maybe horses. Present-day Slavic people are classified into East Slavic (chiefly Belarusians, Russians and Ukrainians), West Slavic (chiefly Poles, Czechs, Slovaks, Wends and Sorbs), and South Slavic (chiefly Bosniaks, Bulgarians, Croats, Goranis, Macedonians, Montenegrins, Serbs and Slovenes). [1][2] Recent genetic research has increasingly contributed to understanding the kinship relations among prehistoric cultures. Taken together, the Kurgan hypothesis and the Old European culture theories presented a compelling story that directly went against the prevalent image of prehistoric cultures (especially cultures that existed outside of the traditional "Cradle of Civilization" in the Fertile Crescent) as "primitive", wild, half-starved savages. 4000 and 3000 BCE, Neolithic populations in western Europe declined, probably due to the plague and other viral hemorrhagic fevers. [82], The primary competitor is the Anatolian hypothesis advanced by Colin Renfrew,[76][19] which states that the Indo-European languages began to spread peacefully into Europe from Asia Minor (modern Turkey) from around 7000 BCE with the Neolithic advance of farming by demic diffusion (wave of advance).
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